THAMMINENI ANANDARAO SPEAKING IN A STATE LEVEL ENGLISH WORK-SHOP IN THE CONFERENCE HALL AT
R.I.E(REGIONAL INSTITUTE OF ENGLISH),BANGALORE IN THE MONTH OF FEBRUARY, 2011.
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ENGLISH GRAMMAR
--by THAMMINENI ANANDARAO
M.A(ENGLISH-AU),M.A(ENGLISH-KU), B.Ed.,
cell no: 9985904483
Jayakrishnapuram village, TEKKALI mandal, SRIKAKULAM district.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ Jayakrishnapuram village, TEKKALI mandal, SRIKAKULAM district.
(Suggestions are invited )
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There are 26 alphabet in English language. They are:
CAPITAL LETTERS
A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z
SMALL LETTERS
a b c d e f g h I j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z
WORD
A group of meaningful letters is called a WORD.
E.g. Boy, girl, school, book, king etc.
SENTENCE
A group of meaningful words which makes complete sense is called a SENTENCE.
E.g. 1)He is a boy.
2)She is clever.
KINDS OF SENTENCE
There are mainly four kinds of sentences. They are:
1) Assertive sentences
2) Imperative sentences
3) Interrogative sentences
4) Exclamatory sentences
I) ASSERTIVE SENTENSES:-
Assertive sentences make statements.
E.g. 1)They go to school every day.
2)He likes sweets.
*Note: - These sentences start with a subject and end with a full stop.
II) IMPERATIVE SENTENCES:-
Orders, requests, and wishes come under this group.
E.g. 1) ‘Get out’.
-2-
2) ‘Give me your pen, please’.
*Note: - These sentences start with a main verb and don’t have subjects.
III) INTERROGATIVE SENTENCES:-
All questions come under this group.
E.g. 1) What is your name?
2) Do you like sweets?
Note: - These sentences should have question marks at the end.
INTERROGATIVE sentences are again divided into two kinds. They are:
1) WH questions
2) YES or NO questions
I) WH questions:-
Questions start with WH are called WH questions. They invite sentence type answers.
WH Question words:- what, where, when, how, why, who, whose, which etc..
E.g. 1)What is your name?
2) How are you?
II) YES or NO questions:-
Questions start with helping verbs are called YES or NO questions. They invite answers like ‘YES’or’NO’.
1) Are you going?
2) Will you come with me?
IV) EXCLAMATORY SENTENCES:-
Sentences,express sudden feelings like happiness, surprise,sadness etc
are called Exclamatory sentences.
Eg.1)What a beautiful flower it is !
2)Alas! I lost it.
3)Hi ! we won the match.
Note:- These sentences have exclamatory marks (!).
-3-
SUBJECT
Noun or Pronoun given prominence in a sentence can be called a subject.
E.g. Rama/ goes to school every day.
Subject=Rama
PREDICATE
The rest of the part in a sentence except subject can be called PREDICATE.
E.g. Rama/ goes to school every day.
Predicate=goes to school every day.
OBJECT
The least prominent Noun or Pronoun in the sentence can be called OBJECT.
E.g. 1) I teach grammar.
Object: grammar
2) Grammar is taught by me.
Object: me
PARTS OF SPEECH
There are 8 parts of speech in English.
1)NOUN 2) PRONOUN 3) VERB 4) ADVERB 5) ADJECTIVE 6) PREPOSITION 7)CONJUNCTION 8)INTERJECTION
NOUN
Noun gives names.
E.g. Boy, seetha, book etc.
KINDS OF NOUN
Noun can be divided into 5 kinds. They are:
1) Common noun
2) Proper noun
3) Abstract noun
4) Collective noun
5) Material noun
-4-
1) COMMON NOUN:-
Nouns used in the sense of general are called Common nouns.
E.g. Boy, girl, king, book etc.
2) PROPER NOUN:-
Nouns used in particular are called Proper noun.
E.g. Rama, seetha, Shivaji, Ramayanam etc.
3) ABSTRACT NOUN:-
Nouns which are felt and invisible ,are called Abstract nouns.
Eg. Happiness,honesty,kindness etc.
4) COLLECTIVE NOUN:-
A unit contains two or more than two are called Collective noun.
Bunch, bundle, Army etc.
5) MATERIAL NOUN:-
Nouns related to material are called Material noun.
E.g. Iron, gold, brass etc.
NOUN – NUMBER
They are two numbers to the noun. They are :
1)Singular number
2)Plural number
Selected examples :
Singular
|
Plural
|
Singular
|
Plural
|
Boy
|
boys
|
Bus
|
buses
|
Story
|
stories
|
Wife
|
wives
|
Man
|
men
|
Fish
|
fish, fishes
|
Sheep
|
Sheep
|
Syllabus
|
syllabi
|
Brother-in-law
|
Brothers-in-law
|
ox
|
oxzen
|
Etc………..
-5-
COUNTABLE NOUN –UNCOUNTABLE NOUN
COUNTABLE NOUN: - Nouns which can be counted are called the countable nouns.
E.g. Books, pens etc.
UNCOUNTABLE NOUN:- Nouns which cannot be counted, are called the uncountable nouns.
Eg. Soap, paper, water etc.
NOUN – GENDER
They are four genders for the noun. They are:
1)Masculine gender
2)Feminine gender
3)Neuter gender
4) Common gender
1) MASCULINE GENDER:-
Nouns related to male gender come under this group.
E.g. King, boy, man, etc.
2) FEMININE GENDER:-
Nouns related to female gender come under this group.
E.g. Queen, girl, female etc.
3) NEUTER GENDER:-
Nouns which are lifeless come under this group.
Eg. Rock, chair, pen etc.
4) COMMON GENDER:-
Nouns used in common, come under this group.
Eg. Singer, writer, painter etc.
PRONOUN
Words used in the place of nouns called pronouns.
-6-
E.g. I – me, mine, my, myself
WE – us, our, ours, ourselves
YOU – you, your, yours, yourself, yourselve
HE – him, his, himself
SHE – her, hers, herself
IT - it, its, itself
THEY – them, their, theirs etc……
PRONOUN –PERSONS
They are 3 persons as for as pronoun is concerned. They are:
PERSONS
|
SINGULAR
|
PLURAL
|
I
|
I
|
we
|
II
|
you
|
you
|
III
|
He,she,it
|
they
|
VERB
Verb is a word denotes action.
E.g. eat, take, write ,do etc.
KINDS OF VERB
Verb can be divided into two kinds. They are:
1)Helping verbs
2) Main verbs
HELPING VERBS
Helping Verbs help main verbs in making sentences.
E.g. 1) she is learning English.
2) Do you like music?
HELPING VERBS = 24.
AUXILIARIES = 12 MODALS = 12
BE – is, am, are, shall - should
Was, were will - would
HAVE – has, had can - could
DO – does, did may - might
-7-
Must, need, dare, used to, ought to.
MAIN VERBS
Main Verbs can make sentences of their own.
E.g. 1) I go to school every day.
2) She went to vizag yesterday.
VERB FORMS
Every Main Verb has 5 forms. They are:
1) PRESENT FORM (V1)
2) PAST FORM (V2)
3) PAST PARTICIPLE FORM (V3)
4) PRESENT PARTICIPLE FORM (V4)
5) PRESENT FORM TO III PERSON SINGULAR (VS)
Sl
no.
|
Present
(V1)
|
Past
(V2)
|
Past participle
(V3)
|
Present participle
(V4)
|
Present to
III person singular (Vs)
|
1)
|
Write
|
wrote
|
written
|
writing
|
writes
|
2)
|
Go
|
went
|
gone
|
going
|
goes
|
3)
|
Come
|
came
|
come
|
coming
|
comes
|
4)
|
Read
|
read
|
read
|
reading
|
reads
|
5)
|
Give
|
gave
|
given
|
giving
|
gives
|
6)
|
Take
|
took
|
taken
|
taking
|
takes
|
7)
|
Teach
|
taught
|
taught
|
teaching
|
teaches
|
8)
|
Stand
|
stood
|
stood
|
standing
|
stands
|
9)
|
Sit
|
sat
|
sat
|
sitting
|
sits
|
10)
|
Bring
|
brought
|
brought
|
bringing
|
brings
|
11)
|
Speak
|
spoke
|
spoken
|
speaking
|
speaks
|
12)
|
Tell
|
told
|
told
|
telling
|
tells
|
13)
|
Ask
|
asked
|
asked
|
asking
|
asks
|
14)
|
Say
|
said
|
said
|
saying
|
says
|
15)
|
Drive
|
drove
|
driven
|
driving
|
drives
|
16)
|
Learn
|
learned
|
learned
|
learning
|
learns
|
17)
|
Punish
|
punished
|
punished
|
punishing
|
punishes
|
18)
|
Do
|
did
|
done
|
doing
|
does
|
19)
|
Make
|
made
|
made
|
making
|
makes
|
20)
|
Use
|
used
|
used
|
*NOTE:- Some Helping verbs (axillaries only) sometimes act as main verbs.
Eg. I)A. He is drinking coffee. ( is – Helping verb)
B. He is a boy. ( is – Main verb )
-8-
II)A. They have taken books. ( have – Helping verb)
B. They have books. (Have – Main verb)
TRANSITIVE VERB – INTRANSITIVE VERB
Transitive Verb:- A verb which requires an object is called Transitive Verb (T.V).
Rama killed Ravana. (T.V.)
He drinks milk every day. (T.V.)
Intransitive Verb :- A verb which doesn’t require an object is called Intransitive Verb (I.V).
I go to school. (I.V.)
She slept on the bed. (I.V.)
NOTE:- Some verbs always remain as Transitive Verbs, some verbs as Intransitive verbs. But many verbs
sometimes act as Transitive Verbs, sometimes as Intransitive verbs.
e.g.
Always Transitive
|
Always Intransitive
|
Sometimes Transitive,
sometimes Intransitive
|
bring
|
go
|
Sing
|
like
|
look
|
Write
|
remove
|
appear
|
play
|
take
|
fall
|
Drink etc……,
|
1)Rama took books. (T.V.)
2)I go to school. (I.V.)
3)He sings songs. (T.V.)
4)He sings sweetly. (I.V.) ……..etc.,
ADVERB
Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives and themselves.
E.g. She runs fast. (Modifies verb)
She runs very fast. (modifies itself)
NOTE: - Many Adverbs end with ‘LY’. E.g. Slowly, suddenly,greatly, etc.
ADJECTIVE
Adjectives denotes the quality of a noun or a pronoun.
E.g. Good, tall, kind etc.
PREPOSITION
Preposition tells the relation among the parts of speech.
E.g. To, at,on,in,from etc.
CONJUNCTION
Conjunction combines two words or two sentences.
Eg.1) Rama and Krishna are good.(combines two words)
2)Rama came and Krishna went. (combines two sentences)
and, that, when, while, so, because etc are some of the conjunctions
INTERJECTION
Words express sudden deep feelings (happiness, wonder, sadness) are called Interjections.
Eg. Alas! O! Hi! Etc.
TENSES
Tenses can mainly be divided into 3 kinds. They are :
1) PRESENT TENSE
2) PAST TENSE
3) FUTURE TENSE
The above each tense is again divided into 4. They are :-
PRESENT TENSE
|
PAST TENSE
|
FUTURE TENSE
| |
1)
|
Simple present
|
Simple past
|
Simple future
|
2)
|
Present continuous
|
Past continuous
|
Future continuous
|
3)
|
Present perfect
|
Past perfect
|
Future perfect
|
4)
|
Present perfect continuous
|
Past perfect continuous
|
Future perfect continuous
|
TABLE
Sl.no
|
TENSE
|
STRUCTURE
|
EXAMPLE
|
Words Used With TheTense
|
1)
|
Simple
present
|
V1 or Vs
|
I teach grammar
He teaches grammar
|
every, daily, often, sometimes always,usually, frequently etc.
|
2)
|
Present
Continuous
|
is/am/are+V4
|
I am teaching grammar.
They are teaching grammar.
|
Now, at present etc.
|
3)
|
Present
perfect
|
have/has+V3
|
I have taught grammar.
He has taught grammar.
|
Just, just now, so far, yet etc.
|
4)
|
Present
perfect continuous
|
have/ has+ been+V4
|
I have been teaching grammar.
He has been teaching grammar.
|
since, for, how long etc.
|
5)
|
Simple past
|
V2
|
I taught grammar.
|
Yesterday, last, then, at the time etc
|
6)
|
Past
continuous
|
was/were+V4
|
I was teaching grammar.
They were teaching grammar.
|
While, when etc.
|
7)
|
Past perfect
|
had+ V3
|
I had taught grammar.
|
Before, when , already etc.
|
8)
|
Past perfect
continuous
|
had+ been+ V4
|
I had been teaching grammar
| |
9)
|
Simple
future
|
shall/will+V1
|
I shall teach grammar.
He will teach grammar.
|
Tomorrow, next, soon, coming etc.
|
10)
|
Future
continuous
|
shall/ will+ be+ v4
|
I shall be teaching grammar .
He will be teaching grammar.
| |
11)
|
Future
perfect
|
shall/ will+ have+ v3
|
I shall have taught grammar.
He will have taught grammar.
|
By this time etc.
|
12)
|
Future
Perfect continuous
|
shall/will/have+been+ v4
|
I shall have been teaching grammar.
He will have been teaching grammar.
|
ARTICLES
Articles are 2. They are:
1) Definite article
2) Indefinite article
1) Definite article :-
Definite article is ‘THE’.
THE’ is used—
1)Before common nouns (singular and plural)which already mentioned
e.g., The boy, The books etc.
2)Before oceans, seas, rivers etc.
e.g. The Indian ocean, The Bay of Bengal, The Godavari etc.
3)Before the superlative degree
E.g. The largest, The cleverest etc.
4)Before the unique things
e.g. The Earth, The Moon etc.
5)With comparative degree
e.g. The more you work, The more you gain.
6)Before the popular names
e.g. The Red Fort, The Vivekananda Memorial Rock etc.
7)Before the proper nouns used for comparison
e.g. The Harichandra rose to talk.
8)Before the names of world famous holy books
E.g. The Ramayana,The Mahabharatha etc.
9)Before a singular noun which represents a whole class
e.g. The man is a social animal.
10)Before an adjective to indicate people
The poor(the poor people),The rich(the rich people)
11)Before the ordinals
e.g. the first, the second, the third etc.,
12)before musical instruments
e.g the flute, the harp, the violin etc,
‘THE’ is NOT used--
1)Before most proper nouns
E,g. Raju,Asia,India,Vishakhapatnam,Mount Everest etc.,
2)Before languages
e.g. Telugu,English,Hindi etc.,
3)Before school, temple, college, university, hospital, prison,
when they are used for their primary purpose
e.g. I go to school every day.
She visits temple on Sundays.
4)Before names of relations
e.g. father, mother,brother etc.,
The indefinite article :-
The indefinite articles are ‘A’ and ‘AN’.
The ‘A’ :-
The indefinite article ‘A’ is used before a singular common noun starts with a consonant sound.
e.g. a university, a year, a book ,a one rupee note etc.
The ‘AN’:-
The indefinite article ‘AN’ is used before a singular common noun starts with a vowel sound.
e.g. an MP, an hour, an egg, an apple etc.
QUESTION TAGS
Question tags are used for confirmation.
Model-I
(With helping verbs)
1)Rama is a boy, isn’t he?
2)she cann’t sing, can she?
3)Seetha will come, won’t she?
4)The story is not interesting, is it?
5) Veena has given it, hasn’t she?
Model-II
(with main verbs)
1)Raju speaks English, doesn’t he?
2)They like music, don’t they?
3)I took books, didn’t I?
SPEACIAL MODELS
1)I am a teacher, aren’t I?
2)I am not a teacher, am I?
3)Let’s go to cinema, shall we?
4)Have it, will you?
5)Somebody has taken, haven’t they?
6) Ravi, you have got it, haven’t you?
Note:-the subject of the question tag is always a pronoun, never a noun.
THE VOICE
There are two voices:
1) ACTIVE VOICE
2) PASSIVE VOICE
1) ACTIVE VOICE (A.V):- In the Active voice ,the agent (doer) will be given more focus.
Subject & agent(doer) are one and same in active voice.
e.g. Raju sings songs. (here, who sings is more important than what is sung).subject =Raju, agent(doer)=Raju
Rama killed Ravana.(here,who killed is more important than who was killed).subject = Rama, agent(doer) = Rama
2) PASSIVE VOICE (P.V):- In the Passive Voice, the affected will be given more focus.
Subject & agent (doer) are not one and same.
e.g. Songs are sung by Raju.(here,what is sung is more important than who sings).subject = songs, agent(doer) = Raju
Ravana was killed by Rama.(here, who was killed is more important than who killed).subject = Ravana, agent(doer)= Rama.
INTERCHANGE OF THE VOICE
CHANGES IN PRONOUNS
A.V
|
P.V
|
A.V
|
P.V
|
I
|
me
|
he
|
him
|
We
|
us
|
it
|
it
|
You
|
you
|
They
|
them
|
she
|
her
|
* * *
|
* * *
|
TABLE
S.No
|
THE MODELS
|
ACTIVE VOICE
|
PASSIVE VOICE
|
1)
|
Simple present
|
I teach grammar.
V1 or Vs
|
Grammar is taught by me.
is/ am/are+V3
|
2)
|
Present continuous
|
I am teaching grammar.
Is\am\are+V4
|
Grammar is being taught by me.
Is/am/are+being+V3
|
3)
|
Present perfect
|
I have taught grammar
Have/ has+V3
|
Grammar has been taught by me.
Have/has+been+V3
|
4)
|
Simple past
|
I taught grammar
V2
|
Grammar was taught by me.
was/were+V3
|
5)
|
Past continuous
|
I was teaching grammar.
Was/were+V4
|
Was/were+being+V3
|
6)
|
Past perfect
|
I had taught grammar.
Had+V3
|
Grammar had been taught by me.
had+ been+V3
|
7)
|
Simple Future
|
I shall teach grammar.
Shall/ will+ V1
|
Grammar will be taught by me.
shall/ will+be+V3
|
8)
|
Model 1 (Let)
|
Open the door.
|
Let the door be opened.
|
9)
|
Model 2 (request)
|
Open the door,please.
|
You are requsted to open the door.
|
10)
|
Model 3
|
someone killed it.
|
It was killed.
|
11)
|
Interrogative model 1
|
Who killed Ravana?
|
By whom was Ravana killed?
|
12)
|
Interrogative model 2
|
Are you singing a song?
|
Is a song being sung by you?
|
13)
|
Interrogative model 3
|
When did you write it?
|
When was it written by you?
|
*NOTE:-There is no Passive voice for an Active voice sentence which does not have an object.
DIRECT AND INDIRECT SPEECH
CHANGES IN THE TENSE
(When the Reporting verb is in the Past tense)
Direct speech Indirect speech
1)simple Present tense(V1 or Vs) 1)The Simple past tense(V2)
e.g. Go or goes e.g. went
2)am/is 2)was
3)are 3)were
4)have/has 4)had
5)The Simple past tense(V2) 5)The Past perfect tense
V2 had+V3
e.g. went e.g. had gone
6)was/were 6)had been
7)will 7)would
8)shall 8)should
9)may 9)might
10)can 10)could
11)must 11)had to
CHANGES IN THE SOME WORDS (in any tense)
1)now/just 1)then
2)ago 2)before
3)today 3)that day
4)tomorrow 4)the next day
5)yesterday 5)the previous day
6)tonight 6)that night
7)this 7)that
8)these 8)those
9)here 9)there
10)thus 10)so
11)hence 11)thence
12)last night 12)the previous night
CHANGES IN SOME PRONOUNS (in any tense)
Direct speech
|
Indirect Speech
| ||
singular
|
Plural
| ||
I
|
he
|
she
| |
we
|
they
| ||
You(subject)
|
he
|
she
|
they
|
You(object)
|
him
|
her
|
them
|
my
|
his
|
her
| |
me
|
him
|
her
| |
us
|
them
| ||
our
|
their
| ||
ourselves
|
themselves
| ||
your
|
his
|
her
|
Their etc..
|
INTERCHANGE OF DIRECT (D.S) AND INDIRECT SPEECH (I.S)
I) ASSERTIVE SENTENSES(Direct to Indirect Speech)
The points to be noted:-
1)’said’ becomes ‘said’
2)’said to’ becomes ‘told’
3)that is used to combine the two parts
e.g. 1) He said, “I am going to vizag tomorrow.” (D.S)
He said that he was going to vizag the next day. (I.S)
2)She said to him,”I shall teach you this“. (D.S.)
She told him that she would teach him that. (I.S.)
3)I said to her,”I bring it for you.” (D.S.)
I told her that I brought it for her. (I.S.)
4)He said to me,”you are clever” (D.S.)
He told me that I was clever. (I.S.)
5) Rama said,”I went to school yesterday.” (D.S.)
Rama said that he had gone to school the previous day.(I.S.)
II)IMPERATIVE SENTENCES(Direct to Indirect speech)
Points to be noted:-
1)’said’ or ‘said to’ becomes-
a)’ordered’ or ’commanded’(order)
b)’requested’(request)
c)asked or told(normal)
d)suggested(suggestion)
e)advised (advice) etc.,
2)’to’ or ‘not to’ (for don’t) is used to combine two parts.
e.g.1) Krishna said to Radha,’Give me your pen,please.’(D.S)
Krishna requested Radha to give him her pen.(I.S)
2)The S.I said to the thief, ’Don’tell lies.’ (D.S)
The S.I ordered the thief not to tell lies.(I.S)
3)She said to him,’come quickly’.(D.S)
She asked him to come quickly.(I.S)
4)The doctor said to her,’Take medicine regularly’.(D.S)
The doctor advised her to take medicine regularly.(I.S)
5)He said to her,’Welcome’.(D.S)
He welcomed her. (I.S)
III)’WH’ QUESTIONS(Direct to Indirect)
Points to be noted:-
1)’said’ or ‘said to’ becomes ‘asked
2)nothing is used to combine two parts
e.g.1)He said to her,’Why are you weeping?’(D.S)
He asked her why she was weeping.(I.S)
2)She said to him,’How do you go?” (D.S)
She asked him how he went. .(I.S)
3)Raju said to Radha,”What did you want?” (D.S)
Raju asked Radha what she had wanted. .(I.S)
4)Rama said to Seetha,”Where does she live?” (D.S)
Rama asked Seetha where she lived. .(I.S)
5)She said to me,”When do you wake up?” (D.S)
She asked me when I woke .(I.S)
IV)’YES’ or ‘ NO’ QUESTIONS:-
Points to be noted:-
1)’said’ or ‘said to’ becomes ‘asked’.
2)’if’/’whether’ used to combine two parts.
e.g.1)She said to him,’Are you going now?’ (D.S)
She asked him if/whether he was going then. (I.S)
2)He said to her, ‘Do you like sweets?’ (D.S)
He asked her if/whether she liked sweets. .(I.S)
3)Rama said to Seetha,’Did you complete it?’ (D.S)
Rama asked Seetha if/whether she had completed it. .(I.S)
4)He said to her,’Does he go to school?’ (D.S)
He asked her if/whether he went to school. .(I.S)
V) EXCLAMATORY SENTENCES:-
Points to be noted:-
1)’said’ becomes ‘exclaimed’
2)’said to’ becomes ‘exclaimed to’
3)’that’ is used to combine two parts
e.g. 1)She said, ‘What a beautiful flower it is !.’ (D.S)
She exclaimed that it was a very beautiful flower. .(I.S)
2)He said to her,’Hi! We have won the match’. (D.S)
He exclaimed happily to her that they had won the match. .(I.S)
3)She said,’Alas! I have lost it.’ (D.S)
She exclaimed sadly that she had lost it. .(I.S)
SPECIAL MODELS(Direct to Indirect speech)
I)The teacher said to students,’The Earth moves round the Sun’. (D.S)
The teacher told students that the Earth moves round the Sun. (I.S)
II)He says ,’It is true.’ (D.S)
He says that it is true. (I.S)
III)She says to him,’I have taken it.’ (D.S)
She tells him that she has taken it. (I.S)
IV)He will say,’It is difficult.’ (D.S)
He will say that it is difficult. (I.S)
V)She said,’Let us go to school’. (D.S)
She said that they should go to school. (I.S)
VI)He said to her,’Are you going to school?’. She said,’Yes’. (D.S)
He asked her if/whether she was going to school. She replied in the positive. (I.S)
VII) She said to him,’Can you sing a song?.’ He said,’No’. (D.S)
She asked her if/whether he could sing a song. He replied in the negative. (I.S)
DEGREES OF COMPARISON
This topic is related to ‘ADJECTIVE.’ Every ADJECTIVE has three forms.They are:
1)POSITIVE DEGREE (A1)
2)COMPARATIVE DEGREE(A2)
3)SUPERLATIVE DEGREE (A3)
POSITIVE
|
COMPARATIVE
|
SUPERLATIVE
|
Strong
|
stronger
|
strongest
|
Beautiful
|
more beautiful
|
most beautiful
|
Difficult
|
more difficult
|
most difficult
|
Good
|
better
|
best
|
Bad
|
worse
|
worest
|
Up
|
upper
|
upper most
|
Unique
|
……….
|
…………
|
excellent
|
…………
|
……………
|
Bottom
|
……
|
bottom most
|
Etc……
I) POSITIVE DEGREE (P.D) :- When there is no comparison, there is Positive degree.
e.g. Rama is a good boy.
II) COMPARATIVE DEGREE (C.D) :-When there is comparison between two persons or two things, there is Comarative degree.
e.g. Rama is better than Krishna.
III)SUPERLATIVE DEGREE (S.D):-When there is comparison among more than two, there is Superlative degree.
e.g. Rama is the best boy in the class.
INTERCHANGE OF THE DEGREES OF COMPARISON
MODEL – I
A)Rama is as good as Krishna. (P.D)
Krishna is not better than Rama. (C.D)
B)The Sun shines better than the Moon. (P.D)
The Moon does not shine so good as the Sun. (C.D)
MODEL – II
A)No other girl is so beautiful as Vijaya in the room. (P.D)
Vijaya is more beautiful than any other girl in the room. (C.D)
Vijaya is the most beautiful girl in the room. (S.D.)
B)Shivaji was more greater than any other king in India. (C.D)
Shivaji was the greatest king in India. (S.D.)
No other king was so great as Shivaji in India. (P.D)
C)Hyderbad is the largest city in A.P. (S.D.)
Hyderbad is larger than any other city in A.P. (C.D)
No other city in A.P. is so large as Hyderbad.
MODEL – III
A)Very few books are as famous as the Bhagvadgitha. (P.D)
The Bhagvadgitha is more famous than many/most other books. (C.D)
The Bhagvadgitha is one of the most famous books. (S.D.)
B)Raju is taller than many/most other students in the class. (C.D)
Raju is one of the tallest students in the class. (S.D.)
Very few students are as tall as Raju in the class. (P.D)
C)India is one of the biggest countries in the world. (S.D.)
India is bigger than many/most other countries. (C.D)
Very few countries are as big as India. (P.D)
MODEL – IV(NEGATIVE)
A)Some kings were at least as strong as Akbar. (P.D)
Akbar was not stronger than some other kings. (C.D)
(or)
Some kings were not less strong than Akbar. (C.D)
Akbar was not the strongest of all kings. (S.D.)
B)The Krishna is not longer than some other rivers. (C.D)
(or)
Some rivers are not less long than the Krishna. (C.D)
The Krishna is not the longest of all rivers. (S.D.)
Some rivers are at least as long as the Krishna. (P.D)
C)Vani is not the cleverest of all students. (S.D.)
Some students are at least as clever as Vani. (P.D)
Vani is not cleverer than some other students. (C.D)
(or)
Some students are not less clever than Vani. (C.D)
SYNTHESIS / COMBINATIONS
PHRASE
A group of words which gives some sense is called ‘PHRASE.’ A Phrase doesnot have subject, verb and object.
e.g.1)on the wall 2)in the pocket 3)out of the matter….. etc.,
CLAUSE
CLAUSE may have subject, object and verb. It sometimes gives complete sense, sometimes does not.
CLAUSE can be divided into two kinds: They are:
1)MAIN CLAUSE
2)SUBORDINATE CLAUSE
1) MAIN CLAUSE:- Main clause is nothing but a sentence. It gives full sense. It does have a finite verb and may have subject,object etc..
e.g. Rama who drives the car is a boy.
‘Rama is a boy’– main clause(it gives full sense. ‘is’ is used here as a finite verb).
2)SUBORDINATE CLAUSE:-This clause doesnot give full sense and have finite verb, though it may have subject, object etc...
e.g. Rama who drives the car is a boy.
‘who drives the car’– subordinate clause(it does not give full sense though it has subject, verb and object. It requires something to give full meaning. ‘drives’ is used here as a non finite verb.)
Sentences can be divided into three kinds. There are:
1) SIMPLE
2)COMPLEX
3)COMPOUND
I) SIMPLE SENTENCE :-
A simple sentence has only one main clause (one finite verb).
e.g. Rama is a good boy. (finite verb)
II) COMPLEX SENTENCE :- A complex sentence has one main clause (one finite verb) and one or many subordinate
clauses.
e.g. Rama ,who drives the car , is a boy.
Rama is a boy.(main clause – ‘is’ used here as a finite verb)
Who drives the car (subordinate clause – ‘drives’ is used here as a non-finite verb)
III) COMPOUND SENTENCE :-
A compound sentence has two or more than two main clauses.
e.g. Rama is a boy and he drives the car .
Rama is a boy(main clause – it gives full sense. ‘is’ is used here as a finite verb)
He drives the car (main clause – it also gives full sense.‘drives’ is also a finite verb)
INTERCHANGE OF SYNTHESIS
USEFUL TABLE
SIMPLE
|
COMPLEX
|
COMPOUND
|
Inspite of, despite
|
Though,although,even if,even though
|
But, yet, still, neverthless
|
On account of, owe to, due to
|
Because, since, as
|
So,therefore,hence,
|
V+ing/ Having+V3
|
when
|
and
|
I)Inspite of poverty, he is honest.( Simple) (main clause-he is honest)
Though he is poor, he is honest. (Complex)(main clause-he is honest, subordinate clause- though he is poor)
He is poor,but(he is) honest. (Compound )(main clause-he is honest, main clause-he is poor)
II) On account of illness,he could not attend school yesterday. ( Simple)
As/since he is ill he could not attend school yesterday. (Complex)
He could not attend school yesterday because he is ill. (Complex)
He is ill,so he could not attend school yesterday. (Compound )
III)Seeing the lion,she ran away. ( Simple)
When she saw the lion, she ran away. (Complex)
She saw the lion and (she) ran away. (Compound )
IV)The Sun, having disappeared, the Moon appeared. ( Simple)
When the Sun disappeared, the Moon appeared. (Complex)
The Sun disappeared and the Moon appeared. (Compound )
IF CLAUSE
I TYPE
(If+V1 or Vs---will/shall+V1)
1)If you work hard,you will get good marks.(chance to get good marks)
2)If she comes,I shall meet her.(chance to meet her)
II TYPE
(If+V2---would+V1)
1)If I were a bird,I would fly.(I am not a bird, I won’t fly)
2)If he had money,he would buy a car.(he doesn’t have money, he won’t buy a car)
III TYPE
(If+had+V3---would+have+V3)
1)If you had worked hard,you would have got good marks.(you did not work hard. You did not get good marks.
2)If she had come,I would have met her.(she did not come.I did not meet her)
SO – THAT
I)SO…THAT…NOT – TOO…TO:-
a)He is so weak that he cannot walk.
He is too weak to walk.
b)She is too short to touch the roof.
She is so short that she cannot touch the roof.
II)SO…THAT:-
a)He is extremely clever.He can get I rank.
He is so clever that he can get I rank.
b)She is very tall. She can win the match.
She is so tall that she can win the match.
III)SO THAT:- a)He is studying Russian. He wants to study in Russia.
He is studying Russian so that he can study in Russia.
b)She left early. She did not want to be late.
She left early so that she would not be late.
‘IF’…’UNLESS’…’OR’/’ELSE /OTHERWISE’…’TO+V1’…’IN ORDER TO’
If you work hard, you will pass.
Unless you work hard you will fail.
You work hard or/else/otherwise you will fail.
Work hard to pass.
Work hard in order to pass.
‘NEITHER…NOR’ – ‘EITHER….OR’
He has neither a car nor a bike.
Be neither a borrower nor a lender.
He may have either cash or a cheque.
‘NOT ONLY…BUT ALSO’ –‘ AS WELL AS’ –‘ AND’ - ‘BOTH’
He is not only clever but also honest.
He is clever as well as honest.
He is clever and honest.
He is both clever and honest.
……………….
(your valuble suggestions will be included in the next latest text)
(your valuble suggestions will be included in the next latest text)
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